Since there is no respected Coptic Language Academy (akin to Académie Française), it’s hard to come up with concrete rules. Nevertheless, there are certain rules and principles this Wikipedia tends to utilise.
Pronunciation
editClassic Bohairic pronunciation, key feature of which is distinction between non-aspirated and aspirated stops, is used, where letters are given the following phonetic values (according to Peust (1999)):
| Letter | Bohairic pron.[2] | Late Coptic pron.[3] |
| Ⲁ | /a/ | /æ/, /ɑ/ |
| Ⲃ | /β/
(final [b]) |
/w/
(final [b]) |
| Ⲅ | /g/ | /g/, ( /ɣ/ before ⲁ, ⲟ, or ⲱ) |
| Ⲇ | /d/ | |
| Ⲉ | /ɛ/, /ə/
( ⲓⲉ = /e/) |
/æ/, /ɑ/
( ⲓⲉ = /e/) |
| Ⲋ | ||
| Ⲍ | /z/ | |
| Ⲏ | /e/ | /æ/, /ɑ/, /ɪ/ |
| Ⲑ | /tʰ/ | /t/ |
| Ⲓ | /i/, /j/, /ə/
( ⲓⲉ = /e/) |
/ɪ/, /j/
( ⲓⲉ = /e/) |
| Ⲕ | /k/ | |
| Ⲗ | /l/ | |
| Ⲙ | /m/ | |
| Ⲛ | /n/ | |
| Ⲝ | /ks/ | |
| Ⲟ | /ɔ/ (ⲟⲩ = /u/, /w/) | /o/ ( ⲟⲩ = /u/, /w/) |
| Ⲡ | /p/ | /b/ |
| Ⲣ | /ɾ/~/r/ | |
| Ⲥ | /s/ | |
| Ⲧ | /t/ | /d/
(final [t]) |
| Ⲩ | /ɪ/, /w/ ( ⲟⲩ = /u/, /w/) | |
| Ⲫ | /pʰ/ | /b/~/f/ |
| Ⲭ | /kʰ/ | /k/ |
| Ⲯ | /ps/ | /bs/
(only in Greek loanwords) |
| Ⲱ | /o/ | /oː/ |
| Ϣ | /ʃ/ | |
| Ϥ | /f/ | |
| Ϧ | /x/ | |
| Ϩ | /h/ | |
| Ϫ | /t͡ʃ/ | /ɟ/ |
| Ϭ | /t͡ʃʰ/ | /ʃ/ |
| Ϯ | /ti/ | /di/ |
As “Late Bohairic” reconstructed in 1968 by Dr Shenouda Maher Ishak in his thesis is also widespread, thus the additional transliteration into it may be given (e.g. ⲧⲣⲓⲡⲟⲗⲓⲥ).
Orthography
editThe Jinkim, or Chinkim (ⲡⲓϪⲓⲛⲕⲓⲙ ⲓⲉ Ϭⲓⲛⲕⲓⲙ) is the accent mark that is placed on Coptic letters to mark syllables. For consonants it's ⲙ̀ and ⲛ̀ only, as in classical Bohairic it is never used with any other consonants. It also marks syllables with all vowels – ⲁ̀, ⲏ̀, ⲉ̀, ⲓ̀, ⲱ̀, ⲟ̀.
Jinkim moves, as it is not an integral part of the lexeme, e.g. ⲙ̀ϩⲓⲧ-ⲡⲉⲙϩⲓⲧ, ⲓ̀ⲁ̀ⲣⲟ-ⲫⲓⲁ̀ⲣⲟ.
Capitalization
editThe topic of capitalization is complex. Coptic was originally written in scripta continua, without spaces between words, and early manuscripts used ornate lettering or larger initial words for emphasis rather than traditional capitalization. As Coptic adapted to modern printing conventions, particularly under Western influence, sporadic attempts at capitalizing the first word of a sentence and proper nouns appeared, as seen in the works of Claudius Labib.
In Coptic, the use of strong (ⲡⲓ-, ϯ-) and weak (ⲡ/ⲫ-, ⲧ/ⲑ-) definite articles already indicates specificity, making capitalization for reference less necessary compared to English. Nomen sacrum is also used to show reverence for certain words (ⲫⲛⲟⲩϯ). However, it is true that modern readers are accustomed to capitalization marking proper nouns and the beginning of sentences, so adopting this system would in fact make Coptic more accessible and understandable.
I suggest drawing inspiration from the French language, as it is, among all European languages (apart from Greek), the closest to Coptic Egyptian both historically and linguistically. Along with capitalizing the first word of sentences, the capitalization system could then be outlined as follows:
Toponyms
edit- Strong Article Not Capitalized: The article remains in lowercase, while the noun itself is capitalized.
- ϯⲔⲉϣⲣⲱⲙⲓ
- ϯⲠⲉⲣⲥⲓⲟⲥ
- ⲡⲓⲘⲁ ⲛ̀ϫⲱⲓⲗⲓ
- ϯⲠⲁⲣⲁⲓⲧⲟⲛⲓⲟⲛ
- ⲡⲓⲔⲗⲩⲥⲙⲁ
- ⲡⲓⲀⲗⲱ
- ϯⲈⲙⲣⲱ
- No Article - Capitalized: If there is no article, the noun is capitalized.
- Ⲣⲁⲕⲟϯ
- Ⲥⲃⲉϩⲧ
- Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ
- Weak Article Capitalized: The weak article is capitalized, but the rest of the proper noun is not.
- Ⲑⲙⲟⲛⲏ
- Ⲯⲁⲣⲥⲓⲛⲓ
- Unless there is another proper noun in the phrase:
- Ⲑⲙⲟⲩⲓ ⲛ̀Ⲁ̀ⲕⲱⲛ
- ⲡⲓⲙⲟⲛⲁⲥⲧⲏⲣⲓⲟⲛ ⲛ̀ⲁⲡⲁ Ϣⲉⲛⲟⲩϯ
- ϯⲞⲩⲁϩ ⲙ̀Ⲡⲉⲙϫⲉ
- Ⲡⲧⲱⲟⲩ ⲛ̀Ⲁ̀ⲑⲣⲏⲃⲓ
General Notes
Strong articles may sometimes be omitted, while weak articles usually are not.
In Bohairic, toponyms often include a strong article. Strong vs. Weak Articles: If the article is easily distinguishable, it becomes strong:
- ⲡⲓⲘⲁ ⲛ̀ϫⲱⲓⲗⲓ
- ⲡⲓϮⲙⲓⲛϩⲱⲣ
When capitalizing toponyms, it is advisable to use modern Arabic and Ancient Greek renderings as guidelines. However, there are exceptions:
- ϯⲈⲙⲣⲱ (Damiru)
- ϯⲀⲙⲏⲣⲓ (Dumayra)
In these particular cases, the strong article is not capitalized in Coptic, but it is preserved in Arabic to prevent confusion with the generic terms for “port” and “inundation.”
- Ⲡⲥⲉⲛϯⲟⲛ (Sandyun)
- Ⲡⲥⲁⲛⲁϣⲟ/Ⲯⲁⲛⲁϣⲟ (Shanasha)
- Ⲡⲥⲁⲣⲥⲓⲛⲓ/Ⲯⲁⲣⲥⲓⲛⲓ (Sarsina)
- Ⲡⲕⲁⲛⲱⲡⲟⲥ (Qanubus)
Here, the weak article is used because the name is unique, and its etymology is obscure to a regular Coptic speaker, thus treated as a “generic” name, like “The Sandyun.”
Plurals:
Toponymic plurals are always capitalized, as they do not make sense without an article:
- Ⲛⲓⲧⲟⲡⲟⲥ
- Ⲛⲓⲥⲧⲣⲁⲙ
Personal Names
editPersonal names, whether compound or not, are capitalized:
- Ⲁ̀ⲑⲁⲛⲁⲥⲓⲟⲥ
- Ⲥⲉⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ
- Ϣⲉⲛⲟⲩϯ
- Ⲧⲁⲗⲟⲩϣⲏⲙ
- Ⲁ̀ⲡⲁⲕⲩⲣⲓ
- Ⲧⲉⲩⲗⲟⲅⲓⲁ̀
Compound Names:
Capitalization follows the rule of capitalizing both parts:
- Ⲓⲱϩⲁⲛⲛⲏⲥ ⲡⲓⲬⲁⲙⲉ
- Ϫⲉⲟⲩϩⲁⲣ ⲡⲓⲢⲉⲙⲥⲓⲕⲓⲗⲓⲁ̀
- Ⲙⲏⲛⲁ Ϣⲏⲙ
- Ⲧⲁϩⲟⲩⲙⲓⲥⲓ ⲡⲓⲤⲧⲁⲩⲣⲟⲥ
Patronymics:
Patronymic terms like ⲡϣⲏ/ⲧϣⲉ (similar to Arabic “ibn”) are not capitalized:
- Ⲙⲏⲛⲁ ⲡϣⲏ Ⲁ̀ⲡⲁⲥⲭⲩⲣⲟⲛ
- Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ̀ ⲧϣⲉ Ⲥⲉⲇⲣⲁⲕ
Adjectives:
Regular adjectives are not capitalized, even if they include a proper noun:
- ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ
- ϩⲩⲧⲁⲗⲓⲕⲏ
- ⲁⲣⲁⲃⲟⲥ
Words separation
editThere are no concrete rules on words separation.
In early Bohairic manuscripts it was influenced by prosodic features, such as the natural rhythm and intonation of spoken language. This is particularly relevant in religious or liturgical texts, where the rhythm and cadence of spoken Coptic might have guided scribes in determining where to place separations or pauses.
For example, in liturgical manuscripts or biblical texts, where oral recitation played a key role, the placement of word separation or punctuation marks could correspond to natural breaks in the prosody of the language. These breaks often helped the reader or speaker maintain a flowing and meaningful delivery, mirroring the pauses or emphases in spoken Coptic.
Thus, prosody influenced both the scribal practices of separating words and the overall readability of the text, as it reflected how the language was expected to be pronounced or chanted aloud. This intersection between writing and spoken language helped to create a system of separation that was not purely mechanical but also aligned with the auditory experience of the text.
Walter Till proposed his own system of separating words in Coptic to which you can get accustomed here (in German).
This Wikipedia implements a somewhat combined approach. For example, prepositions are joined to the following word akin to other Afro-Asiatic languages (ϧⲉⲛⲡⲓⲏⲓ, ϧⲁⲡⲓⲧⲱⲟⲩ, ⲥⲁⲡⲉⲙⲉⲛⲧ, ⲟⲩⲧⲉϣⲗⲟⲗ etc.) while enclictic particles are separated (ⲁ̀ⲛⲟⲕ ⲡⲉ).
You’re free to apply any method you want though, apart from scriptio continua.
Neologisms
editWhen developing neologisms in Coptic, the process involves drawing from a variety of linguistic sources, ensuring that new terms are consistent with the historical and grammatical norms of the language. Below is a step-by-step guide on how to approach this task, outlined by Ambrose Boles. Regardless of the used approach used each neologism must be sufficiently explained in the etymology section (ϯⲉ̀ⲧⲩⲙⲟⲗⲟⲅⲓⲁ̀) of the respective page, which can be later discussed and questioned by other users.
Utilizing existing Bohairic lexemes (search literature for precedents)
editThe first and most straightforward approach to creating neologisms is to check whether a suitable Bohairic lexeme already exists. This requires thorough research into existing Coptic literature to find terms with either the exact meaning or a close semantic equivalent.
- If a word with the exact intended meaning already exists, this should be used.
Example: ⲣⲉϥⲥⲉⲙⲓ meaning “advocate, accuser” (CD 336b) could be used for “lawyer.”
- If no exact match is found, look for words with a similar semantic range that could be adapted or repurposed.
Internal derivation from existing Bohairic lexemes
editIf no suitable term exists, the next option is to derive new words from existing Bohairic roots by adding prefixes or suffixes. This method allows for the creation of new terms that still feel familiar within the Coptic lexicon.
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| ⲁⲛ- | "a collection of" | ⲁⲛ-ϣⲁϣϥ seven,"week"; *ⲁⲛ-ⲥⲁϫⲓ word, "dictionary" |
| ⲁⲧ-, ⲁⲧϣ- | "without", "without ability to" | ⲁⲑ-ⲛⲟⲩϯ god, "godless, atheist" |
| ⲉ- | "profession of" | ⲉ-ⲕⲱⲧ to build, "builder" |
| ⲗⲁ- | "abundance of" | ⲗⲁ-ϥⲱⲓ hair, "someone hairy" |
| ⲙⲉⲧ- | "abstraction" | ⲙⲉⲧ-ⲣⲱⲙⲓ human, "humanity" |
| ⲣⲉϥ- | "a person/agent" | ⲣⲉϥ-ⲥⲱⲛⲧ create, "creator" |
| ⲥⲁⲛ̀- | "profession, man of" | ⲥⲁⲛ̀-ϣⲁⲣ skin "skin-seller", ⲥⲁⲙ̀-ⲙⲉⲑⲛⲟⲩϫ lie, "liar" |
| ϩⲁ- | "beginning of" | ϩⲁ-ⲛ̀-ⲣⲟ mouth, "lip" |
| ϫⲓⲛ- | "act of doing" | ϫⲓⲛ-ⲙⲟϣⲓ go, "march" |
Borrowing lexemes from other Coptic dialects (search literature for precedents)
editIf Bohairic lacks a suitable term, it may be helpful to look at other Coptic dialects, such as Sahidic or Akhmimic, which often preserve older or more regionally specific vocabulary.
Exact matches from other dialects can be adopted, though they may need phonological adjustments to fit Bohairic pronunciation.
Example: The Sahidic word ϭⲏϣⲉ, ϭⲉϣⲉ meaning “goose or large duck” (CD 837a), derived from Ancient Egyptian gš “large migrating bird” (Cerny 339), can be adapted into Bohairic as ϫⲏϣⲓ after proper "conversion".
Lexemes with a similar semantic range, even if not an exact match, can also be adapted. This may involve slight modifications to the term to fit the target dialect.
Internal derivation from Coptic lexemes in other dialects
editAnother productive strategy is to take lexemes from other Coptic dialects and apply internal derivational processes, similar to those used within Bohairic, to create new terms. This allows the expansion of the lexicon while maintaining dialectal consistency.
This process might involve adjusting roots from Sahidic, Fayyumic, or other dialects by adding Bohairic derivational affixes or modifying their form to suit Bohairic phonological rules.
Deriving neologisms from Demotic lexemes
editAncient Egyptian words that have fallen out of use or didn't make it into literary Coptic can rarely be revived and adapted to fill lexical gaps. By tracing the roots of lost lexemes, it could possible to reintroduce them into the Bohairic dialect with necessary phonological updates.
Foreign borrowings and loanwords
editIn cases where a concept does not exist within the Coptic lexicon, borrowing from foreign languages is a viable option. This can be done either through transliteration or translation, depending on the term and its relevance to Coptic speakers.
Transliteration: Some foreign words can be adopted directly through transliteration.
Example: The word ⲧⲉⲗⲉϥⲱⲛ for “telephone” could be transliterated based on the source language.
Translation: In some cases, it is more appropriate to create a Coptic equivalent by translating the foreign term’s components.
Example: The Greek word tele (far) + phone (sound) could be translated into Bohairic as ϧⲁⲣⲁⲟⲩⲉⲓ (“far sound”), or a hybrid term like ⲧⲉⲗⲉⲛⲁⲩ could be created by combining Greek and Coptic elements.
- International terms (e.g., “telephone”) should be transliterated or translated based on their global significance.
- Borrowings from Egyptian Arabic can be used, especially for words in common use that are not present in Classical Arabic. This approach ensures that the Coptic language remains accessible to modern Egyptian speakers.
- English, as the modern Lingua Franca, may also serve as a source for certain technical or modern terms, especially those related to technology and science.
- Other languages can contribute specific cultural terms, such as the native names of countries or other proper nouns closely associated with particular linguistic groups.